Journal of Career Assessment recent issues

Integrating Social Class Into Vocational Psychology: Theory and Practice Implications

Diemer, M. A., Rasheed Ali, S. — 2009-07-22

Although social class plays a salient and significant role in career development and occupational attainment, social class is underrepresented in vocational psychology theory, scholarship, and practice. Vocational psychologists are in a unique position to meet the career development needs of persons from all social classes by integrating a fuller understanding of social class into their scholarship and practice. This article provides an interdisciplinary review of conceptualization and operationalization of social class, the consideration of social class by theories of career development, the impact of social class upon career development processes, and implications of social class for career counseling and assessment. Through helping vocational psychologists more deeply understand social class and its interconnections to career development and occupational attainment, this article intends to create a springboard for the further integration of social class into vocational psychology scholarship and practice.

Social Class and Work-related Decisions: Measurement, Theory, and Social Mobility

Fouad, N. A., Fitzpatrick, M. E. — 2009-07-22

In this reaction to Diemer and Ali's article, "Integrating Social Class Into Vocational Psychology: Theory and Practice Implications," the authors point out concerns with binary schema of social class, highlight the contribution of social class to the social cognitive career theory, argue for a more nuanced look at ways that work provides social mobility in the United States, and note the need to integrate social class with other contextual variables.

Relation of Depression and Affectivity to Career Decision Status and Self-Efficacy in College Students

Rottinghaus, P. J., Jenkins, N., Jantzer, A. M. — 2009-07-22

Further investigations are necessary to explore the interface between personal-emotional and career-related factors. The authors examined links between participants' emotional life, including depression and positive/negative affect, and career decision status and average level of vocationally relevant self-efficacy in a sample of 388 university students. Participants who had made a career decision were significantly less depressed, as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, than those who were undecided about their career. Furthermore, the authors found no significant difference in the average level of positive affect or negative affect, as measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, across career choice status groups. Gender accounted for 8.4% of the variation in overall average level of self efficacy, as measured by the Kuder Skills Assessment—College and Adult Version, and positive affect significantly contributed incremental variance (12.7%). The importance of addressing depression and affectivity in vocational research and practice is discussed.

Ethnic Identity and Career Development Among First-Year College Students

Duffy, R. D., Klingaman, E. A. — 2009-07-22

The current study explored the relation of ethnic identity achievement and career development progress among a sample of 2,432 first-year college students who completed the Career Decision Profile and Phinney's Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. Among students of color, correlational analyses revealed a series of statistically significant, but small positive correlations between higher levels of ethnic identity achievement and career decidedness, choice comfort, indecisiveness, and choice importance. Additionally, racial group was found to moderate the relation between ethnic identity achievement and career decidedness. For Black and Asian American students, those with higher levels of ethnic identity achievement were found to have significantly higher levels of career decidedness, whereas ethnic identity achievement had no significant relation with the decidedness of White and Latina/o students. It is suggested that for first-year students of color, ethnic identity achievement may play a meaningful, but limited role in being decided in one's career decisions. Research and practice implications are discussed.

Susceptibility of Job Attitudes to Context Effects

Bowling, N. A., Boss, J., Hammond, G. D., Dorsey, B. — 2009-07-22

Researchers have typically overlooked the possibility that responses to job attitude items might be produced "on the spot" using information that is temporally accessible to participants. In the current study, the authors test this possibility by examining context effects that occur when questionnaire content influences responses to subsequent survey items. Using data collected from employed students, the authors conducted three experiments that provide evidence that responses to job attitude measures are sensitive to context effects. Specifically, asking participants to think about either positive aspects or negative aspects of their jobs/organizations influenced subsequent responses to job attitudes items. Further analyses suggested that some effects of context manipulations on job attitudes were mediated by participant mood. The authors conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

Dispositional Resistance to Change and Occupational Interests and Choices

Oreg, S., Nevo, O., Metzer, H., Leder, N., Castro, D. — 2009-07-22

Through two field studies, we examine the role that individuals' orientation toward change has in determining their occupational choices and interests. In Study 1, 139 job applicants' dispositional resistance to change (RTC) scores were associated with occupational choice, such that individuals applying for investigative and enterprising jobs tended to have lower RTC scores in comparison to those applying for realistic and conventional jobs. In Study 2, among 45 individuals in artistic jobs and 61 individuals in conventional jobs, the routine-seeking dimension of RTC was negatively associated with the artistic choice and interests and positively associated with the conventional choice and interests. The inverse pattern of relationships was found for the emotional reaction dimension of RTC. The relevance of these findings for the occupational field is discussed.

The Development and Initial Validation of Social Cognitive Career Theory Instruments to Measure Choice of Medical Specialty and Practice Location

Rogers, M. E., Creed, P. A., Searle, J. — 2009-07-22

Social cognitive career theory served as the basis for the instrument development for scales assessing self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals to predict medical career choice. Lent and Brown's conceptualization of social cognitive constructs guided the development of items to measure choice of medical specialty and practice location. Study 1 involved four stages: identification of attitudes and beliefs, generation of scale items, evaluation of scale items by experts, and a pilot study. The pilot study tested the item pool with 293 medical students and allowed item and exploratory factor analyses. Study 2 administered the scales to a second sample of 499 medical students. Confirmatory factor analysis assessed consistency and validity, and identified six psychometrically sound instruments. Initial validity for the scales was found encouraging, with further testing of these measures expected to support their use. Implications for use in research are discussed.

The Effectiveness of a Career Decision-Making Course

Fouad, N., Cotter, E. W., Kantamneni, N. — 2009-07-22

This study examined the effectiveness of a college career course designed to increase career decision-making confidence and facilitate career exploration. Participants were 73 students from a large Midwestern university (65.6% women, 34.4% men, mean age 18.56). Students were given questionnaires assessing career decision-making difficulties, career decision-making self-efficacy, and perception of career and educational barriers during the first and fifteenth weeks of the course. Repeated measures analyses were conducted to examine possible differences in students' responses before and after the course. Results indicated that on completion of the course students' career decision-making difficulties decreased, career self-efficacy increased, and perceptions of barriers did not change.

The Happenstance Learning Theory

Krumboltz, J. D. — 2009-03-31

What-you-should-be-when-you-grow-up need not and should not be planned in advance. Instead career counselors should teach their clients the importance of engaging in a variety of interesting and beneficial activities, ascertaining their reactions, remaining alert to alternative opportunities, and learning skills for succeeding in each new activity. Four propositions: (1) The goal of career counseling is to help clients learn to take actions to achieve more satisfying career and personal lives—not to make a single career decision. (2) Assessments are used to stimulate learning, not to match personal characteristics with occupational characteristics. (3) Clients learn to engage in exploratory actions as a way of generating beneficial unplanned events. (4) The success of counseling is assessed by what the client accomplishes in the real world outside the counseling session.

Career Aspirations and Expectations of College Students: Demographic and Labor Market Comparisons

Metz, A.J., Fouad, N., Ihle-Helledy, K. — 2009-03-31

Replicating previous research, this study examined differences in 677 diverse college students' career aspirations and expectations based on gender and ethnicity, and compared their career expectations to the U.S. workforce. This study extended the literature base by exploring discrepancies between occupational aspirations and expectations (aspiration—expectation discrepancy) in terms of Holland code congruence and complexity. Further, this study investigated how perceptions of career barriers, career decision self-efficacy, and differential status identity may be related to the aspiration—expectation discrepancy. Results revealed significant ethnic and gender differences in career aspirations and expectations. Furthermore, the careers college students expected to pursue were not entirely aligned with the current labor market. Discrepancies existed between the careers students aspired to and expected to pursue. Finally, our findings revealed that career barriers, career decision self-efficacy, and differential status identity are three factors that may be related to the aspiration—expectation discrepancy, which warrants more research.

The Career Aspirations of Rural Appalachian High School Students

Rasheed Ali, S., Saunders, J. L. — 2009-03-31

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the contributions of several social cognitive career theory (SCCT) factors in predicting the career aspirations of a group of high school students living in the central part of rural Appalachia. Sixty-three high school students completed measures assessing their vocational/educational self-efficacy beliefs, career decision outcome expectations, socioeconomic status (SES), age, and their perceptions of familial and peer support. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis indicated that 52% of the variance associated with career aspirations was accounted for by the SCCT variables. Findings indicated that the majority of the variance was accounted for by vocational/educational self-efficacy beliefs, SES, and career decision outcome expectations. Given the cultural considerations of this population, these findings suggest that lower SES rural Appalachian high school students might benefit from targeted interventions that are designed to increase their confidence and expectations about their future.

Personality, Vocational Interests, and Work Values of Medical Students

Duffy, R. D., Borges, N. J., Hartung, P. J. — 2009-03-31

Interests, personality, and values figure prominently in work motivation, yet little research has examined the combined influence of these factors on vocational behavior. The present study therefore examined relationships among these variables in a sample of 282 medical students (169 women, 113 men) who responded to the Strong Interest Inventory, NEO Personality Inventory—Revised, and the Physician Values in Practice Scale. Supporting prior research, results indicated significant relationships between openness and artistic interests and between extraversion and enterprising interests, social interests, and management work values. Regression analyses indicated that personality and vocational interests predicted between 2% and 14% of the variance in each of six work values measured. Personality traits and vocational interests appear to play a meaningful, albeit limited, role in determining work values.

Relation of Neuroticism and Negative Career Thoughts and Feelings to Lack of Information

Kelly, K. R., Shin, Y.-J. — 2009-03-31

The purpose of this study was to explore correlates of chronic career indecision with multivariate modeling. We examined the effects of neuroticism and negative career thoughts and feelings on lack of information, which is one of the core elements of chronic career indecision. The sample included 310 first-semester students who had entered university study without a declared academic major. The results yielded support for the hypothesized multivariate model. Negative career thoughts and feelings explained a large amount of the variance in lack of information. The influence of neuroticism on lack of information was indirect and fully mediated by negative career thoughts and feelings. These results have significant implications for counseling for chronic career indecision.

Where Have the Investigative Occupations Gone?: Perceptions and Misperceptions of Occupations

Amit, A., Sagiv, L. — 2009-03-31

How do people perceive occupations? Three empirical studies examined whether occupations are perceived in accordance with Holland's RIASEC model. The studies varied in measures (reported preferences, similarity judgments) and participants (university students, working adults, and university professors). Taken together, the findings indicate that perceptions of occupations partially comply with Holland's model: All four samples perceived the realistic, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional as distinct environments (with the latter two intermixed). Moreover, the order of these environments is congruent with Holland's RIASEC order. The most notable deviation from the RIASEC model was the consistent misperception of the investigative work environment. Participants in all three studies overlooked the commonalities among investigative occupations, instead perceiving these occupations in terms of their content (as expressed by their second or third Holland letter code). Implications for vocational research, career counseling, and selection processes are discussed.

The Structure of the Career Beliefs Inventory on a Sample of Italian High School Students

Hess, T. R., Tracey, T. J. G., Nota, L., Ferrari, L., Soresi, S. — 2009-03-31

This study was an examination of the validity of Krumboltz's Career Beliefs Inventory in a sample of Italian high school students (N = 256). The factor structure was examined at the item level using exploratory factor analysis. A five-factor structure emerged during analysis highlighting beliefs about Career Confidence, Career Activity, Career Independence, Career Flexibility, and Career Positivity. These factors appear to have little overlap with the results of other studies examining American and other cross-national samples. The factor scores were correlated with several career measures to aid interpretation.

Linking Abilities, Interests, and Sex via Latent Class Analysis

Johnson, W., Bouchard, T. J. — 2008-12-29

The few studies that have examined associations between measured interests and abilities have suffered from small sample sizes, restricted ranges of ability and background, preconceived groupings of interests, and measures of ability that confound general and specific cognitive abilities. In this study of 425 adults from diverse backgrounds, the authors used latent class analysis, with general intelligence and two dimensions of ability that are uncorrelated with general intelligence as covariates, to articulate eight occupational interests that could be characterized by level and profile of ability. These groups showed substantial mean differences in all covariates, and differences in the covariates had substantial effects on probabilities of interest group classification. Sex differences in ability dimensions did not, however, completely explain the sex differences in most likely interest group classification. Although socialization may explain the greater sex differences in occupational interests than abilities, biological explanations are also possible.

The Relationship Between Occupational Interests and Values

Smith, T. J., Campbell, C. — 2008-12-29

A values characterization of the RIASEC occupational interest categories was developed using the U.S. Department of Labor's O*NET occupational data. Values profile plots were constructed for each interest category, then correspondence analysis and canonical correlation were carried out to assess the relationship between the interest and values categories. Suggestions for the use of values information in a counseling context are presented.

The Kuder Skills Assessment--College and Adult Version: Development and Initial Validation in a College Business Sample

Rottinghaus, P. J. — 2008-12-29

This article introduces the Kuder Skills Assessment—College and Adult version (KSA-CA; Rottinghaus, 2006), a new measure incorporating advances in the measurement of self-efficacy across 16 basic occupational domains (e.g., finance, information technology) and the six Kuder Clusters. Similar to the original development sample, all scales of the KSA-CA were highly internally consistent, and demonstrated expected gender differences and relations with each other in a sample of 241 business students from a large Midwestern university. Of the 198 participants who had selected a specific business major, four specialty areas were identified: accounting, management, finance, and marketing. Mean KSA-CA scores were examined between the development and business samples and among the specialty groups. The business sample scored higher than the development sample across nine domains, including all with business-related content. Several relevant scales distinguished subgroups of business majors supporting the validity of the specialized KSA-CA scales.

Pedagogical Approaches Used by Faculty in Holland's Model Environments: The Role of Environmental Consistency

Smart, J. C., Ethington, C. A., Umbach, P. D. — 2008-12-29

This study examines the extent to which faculty members in the disparate academic environments of Holland's theory devote different amounts of time in their classes to alternative pedagogical approaches and whether such differences are comparable for those in "consistent" and "inconsistent" environments. The findings show wide variations in the use of alternative pedagogical approaches among faculty members in four of the academic environments of Holland's theory based on the level of consistency or inconsistency in the environmental profiles of these environments. The implications of these findings for future research using Holland's theory to understand longitudinal patterns of change and stability in the attitudes, interests, and abilities of college students as well as variability in the patterns of professional attitudes and behaviors of college faculty are discussed. Attention is also devoted to the policy development and practical implications of these findings for careers counselors and other college and university leaders.

Examining the Application of Holland's Theory to Vocational Interests and Choices of Chinese College Students

Mei Tang, — 2008-12-29

This study investigates the applicability of Holland's career development theory in cross-cultural settings by examining vocational interests of Chinese college students and the relationship between those interests and their career choices. One hundred sixty five Chinese college students complete a Chinese version of the Self-Directed Search and a questionnaire requesting their demographic information, career choices, reasons for making a particular choice, and suggested areas needed for vocational guidance. The Multidimensional Scaling results supported the RIASEC order of Holland's typology for male students and equivalent distance among six types for female students. The majority of participants had a medium level of congruence between interests and choices as measured by the C-Index. Personal interests, social needs, and job market are identified as the top reasons for making a career choice. Practical outcome-oriented career implementation skills are more desired than self-exploration for vocational guidance.

Constructions of Work Among Adolescents in Transition

Ferrari, L., Nota, L., Soresi, S., Blustein, D. L., Murphy, K. A., Kenna, A. C. — 2008-12-29

To analyze the conception of work and its relationship with the various indices of progress in career development, we administered a structured, open-ended questionnaire that explored beliefs about working among a sample of Italian high school students considering university options. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, we found that the majority of students considered work as a means to an end; a smaller proportion of students viewed work as a source of psychological satisfaction. The quantitative analyses revealed that students who considered more than one dimension of work in their internal constructions tended to rely on more adaptive means of career decision making. The results are discussed in light of previous research and current perspectives in career development theory.

Domestic Violence Survivors: Perceived Vocational Supports and Barriers

2008-12-29

Domestic violence survivors encounter numerous barriers and few supports in pursuit of their vocational goals. There is a dearth of research, however, on the vocational supports and barriers salient for survivors. This study aims (a) to assess the psychometric properties of vocational supports and barriers measures with a racially and geographically diverse sample of survivors, (b) to investigate survivors' abuse experiences and perceived supports and barriers, and (c) to examine the relationships among survivors' abuse experiences and supports and barriers. This study was conducted with 227 women survivors residing in five U.S. geographic regions. Results showed strong construct validity for the supports and barriers measures; participants' abuse experiences were associated with current perceptions of vocational barriers but not anticipation of future barriers; racial differences were found among survivors' perceptions of support and the relationship between perceived support, perceived barriers, and abuse experiences. Research and practice implications are provided.

Emotional and Personality-Related Aspects of Career-Decision-Making Difficulties

Saka, N., Gati, I., Kelly, K. R. — 2008-09-29

This research focuses on developing a theoretical framework for analyzing the emotional and personality-related aspects of career-decision-making difficulties. The proposed model is comprised of three major clusters: pessimistic views, anxiety, and self-concept and identity. In Study 1, the Emotional and Personality Career Difficulties Scale (EPCD) was developed, refined, and used to empirically test the model with an Israeli Internet sample (N = 728). Study 2 (N = 276) provided evidence for the cross-cultural validity of the proposed model, using an American college student sample. The relations between the cognitive and emotional components of career-decision-making difficulties are discussed, and theoretical, research, and counseling implications are explored.

Math and Science Social Cognitive Variables in College Students: Contributions of Contextual Factors in Predicting Goals

Byars-Winston, A. M., Fouad, N. A. — 2008-09-29

This study investigated the influence of two contextual factors, parental involvement and perceived career barriers, on math/science goals. Using social cognitive career theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994), a path model was tested to investigate hypothesized relationships between math- and science-related efficacy beliefs (i.e., task and coping) and perceived career barriers to math/science interests and goals in a sample of 227 undergraduates. Overall fit indices supported a model for the direct contribution of parental involvement largely to outcome expectations and moderately to math/science task self-efficacy and perceived barriers. Parental involvement directly and indirectly predicted goals through its strong relationship with outcome expectations. Outcome expectations and interests directly predicted goal intentions. Evidence supported coping efficacy as a mediator of the relationship between perceived career barriers and goals. Future research directions and practice implications are discussed.

Incremental Validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in Predicting Academic Major Selection of Undecided University Students

Pulver, C. A., Kelly, K. R. — 2008-09-29

This study examined the incremental validity of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) as a predictor of academic major choice. Undecided university students were administered the MBTI and Strong Interest Inventory (SII). Their academic major choice was recorded at the end of their fourth semester and categorized as realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional. We conducted sequential discriminant analyses based on the (a) SII alone and (b) combined use of the SII and MBTI. The SII general occupational theme scales correctly predicted 45.4% of cases, which was significantly better than chance. The hit rate based on the combined use of the SII and MBTI was 48.3%, which was not a significantly higher predictive increment. Implications of these findings for career counselors are discussed.

A Psychometric Evaluation of Super's Work Values Inventory--Revised

Robinson, C. H., Betz, N. E. — 2008-09-29

This study describes the psychometric evaluation of Super's Work Values Inventory—Revised (SWVI-R), an instrument comprised of 12 scales measuring the relative importance placed on the following work-related value dimensions: Achievement, Coworkers, Creativity, Income, Independence, Lifestyle, Mental Challenge, Prestige, Security, Supervision, Work Environment, and Variety. These Work Values scales were internally consistent and showed predictable patterns of gender differences and similarities. Racial/ethnic differences in the relative emphasis placed on work values were also explored in this study. The factor analysis yielded four theoretically consistent underlying factors, as follows: Environment, Esteem, Excitement, and Safety. Furthermore, the scales and factors of the SWVI-R were related to the broader cultural value systems of individualism and collectivism. In addition, the Work Values scales demonstrated adequate discriminant validity with two aspects of social desirability. Limitations of this study are discussed, along with further research on and potential uses for this inventory.

The Effects of Decision-Making Style and Cognitive Thought Patterns on Negative Career Thoughts

Paivandy, S., Bullock, E. E., Reardon, R. C., Kelly, F. D. — 2008-09-29

People's thoughts and beliefs about themselves and their career options affect their ability to make decisions. Career counselors would benefit from knowing the factors that contribute to negative career thoughts. This study examined two unexplored factors that may affect the development and maintenance of negative career thoughts, decision-making styles and a ruminative thought pattern. Pearson product correlations and a multiple regression were used to determine the extent to which maximizing and rumination predicted negative career thoughts. Results suggested that maximizing and rumination are moderately correlated with negative career thoughts. Together they account for 14% of the explained variance of negative career thoughts. Implications of findings on practice and research are discussed. The cognitive information processing theory is also presented as a method by which to conceptualize a client's maximizing decision-making style and ruminating thought patterns.

Mexican American High School Students' Postsecondary Educational Goals: Applying Social Cognitive Career Theory

Flores, L. Y., Navarro, R. L., DeWitz, S. J. — 2008-09-29

A multivariate multiple regression analysis predicting the educational goal aspirations and expectations of 89 Mexican American high school students was examined based on Lent, Brown, and Hackett's (1994) Social Cognitive Career Theory and prior research findings with Mexican American samples. No gender or generational status differences were found in educational aspirations or expectations; however, participants reported higher educational aspirations than educational expectations. In addition, results of a multivariate multiple regression analysis suggested that Anglo-oriented acculturation was significantly positively related to educational goal expectations and educational goal aspirations. Mexican-oriented acculturation, college self- efficacy, and college outcome expectations were not significantly related to Mexican American students' educational goals aspirations or expectations. Results are discussed as they relate to improving the educational achievement among Mexican American youth.

From #2 Pencils to the World Wide Web: A History of Test Scoring

Zytowski, D. G. — 2008-09-29

The present highly developed status of psychological and educational testing in the United States is in part the result of many efforts over the past 100 years to develop economical and reliable methods of scoring. The present article traces a number of methods, ranging from hand scoring to present-day computer applications, stimulated by the need to economically score large-scale scholastic aptitude and achievement tests and complex interest assessments.